Objective 1: Understand overall body homeostasis with specific regard given to the effects of aging and stress on each system

I had to refer way back to chapter 1 page 8 to remember the exact defination of homeostasis. The book states: homeostasis is a dynamic state of equilibrium, where every organ system plays a role in maintaining the balance of the internal enviroment. Homeostasis consists of a control center that analyzes any stimuli that the body may come across and acts accordingly to make sure the body maintains it homestatic state. The body uses negative and positive feedback mechanisms controls in response to stimuli that knocks our bodies balance off. Each organ system works closely together with its own unique functions to allow our bodies to stay in harmony. So we have this body in perfect harmony, but what effect does stress and aging have on the body?

The textbook really doesn't have an exact answer for the effects of stress and aging on each body system, so I had to take my search elsewhere. I found this site about the effects of stress on each body system on a stress relief site called sound-mind.org. I know first hand that stress can do major damage to our body systems. I take one of my older sisters for example. She's a very anxious person, which causes her to get stressed out over EVERY little thing. I'm not exaggerating, I mean everything makes her freak out. She's always worried about bills, relationship problems, money problems, and she believes that everything bad happens to her. So she stress herself out so bad that she is always constantly sick, and it's usually for weeks at a time. That can't be good for her body. But this makes complete sense because stress has an effect on lowering our immunity. This explains why she is always sick.

I found a blog called The effects of aging on the body systems which gave me some very useful information on how aging effects the body systems, just like the title of the article states. But the effects of aging on the body system is something I see first hand at work every day. I work as a C.N.A out at a new nursing home called NHC on Okatie Hwy, and I have been working as a C.N.A for almost a year now. So aging on the body system is something that I see and deal with everyday. Not to mention, I take care of an Alzheimer's resident during the day and I can see how aging and disease has affected him. When our body ages, our skin becomes thin and continence becomes a thing of the past. There may be pains in joints that were never there when you younger, and vision is not as sharp as it used to be. Everyday I help take care of people who can no longer stand up because of arthritis, or change briefs because they are no longer able to tell when they have to go. So this part of the objective is very familar to me because I am around aging and its effects on our body systems all the time.

Objective 11: Understand structure and function of the endocrine system in relation to growth and homeostasis

This another one of those objectives that I just can't figure out the right answer. I've been sitting here racking my brain to try to think of the right answer that could fulfill this objective and I keep coming to a road block. But I'm going to give it my best attempt. Okay, here it goes.

The endocrine system is an amazing system that interacts parallel to the nervous system to cordinate and intergrate the activity of body cells. The endocrine system uses hormones (chemical messengers), instead of the electrochemical impluses by neurons from the nervous system, and releases them into the blood. These chemical messengers travel to their "target" organs and effect them in certain ways. The endocrine system uses hormones along with negative and positive feedback mechanisms to maintain the bodies homeostasis.  The anterior pituitary gland of the endocrine system secretes growth hormone (GH), which causes most body cells to increase in size and divide. This hormone allows us to grow. I know I probably didn't get anywhere near close to the right answer, but to be honest I'm still a little lost when it comes to this objective. The Interactive Physiology site did help me understand the structure and function of the endocrine system and how it helps aid in our bodies homeostasis.

Objective 14: Endocrine System

Objective 14: Describe the location, histology, hormones, and functions of the thyroid gland, the parathyroid gland, the adrenal glands, the pancreas, the ovaries, the testes, the pineal gland, and the thymus

WOW! I'd have to say that this is alot of information that is wanted on one objective. I was pretty overwhelmed when I saw it and wondered, 'how on earth am I going to get that one done?' The textbook was a great help (as always) but what really helped our with the location and functions of the endocrine system was our textbook's Interactive Physiology website. I know I have used this site for numerous objectives (like for the respiratory system and alimentary canal), but it has done wonders for me! I really would be kind of lost without it. I had to click under the tab of endocrine system, go to anatomy review, and then just sit back and soak everything in. This interactive lesson not only shows the location of these glands, but also the hormones they secrete and the functions that they perform on the body. Three for one deal? I'll take it! The same site that I used for the histology of the alimentary canal and the respiratory system is the same one that I used for the endocrine system. I wasn't able to take many good pictures of the slides from our labtime (most of the pictures were blurry), so having this site was a great reinforcement. I also found this picture that was helpful, and it shows the location of all the endocrine glands along with their hormones and functions within the body. The endocrine system is a complicated system as it is, so I'm glad that I have sites that can offer me help with multiple objectives.

Objective 78: Distinguish among the different parts (gross and histological) of the alimentary canal in terms of structure and function

Again, the Interactive Physiology section of our textbook's website is absolutely amazing! This animated review not only goes over the structure of the alimentary canal, but it goes over the functions as well. This review allowed me to interact with the alimentary canal because I could click my mouse over certain organs and the review goes into detail about the functions of it and shows its internal structures. I don't know how many times I referred to this site to help me on my quest of completing these objectives, but I'm glad that our textbook provided it. I would have been so lost without this site, but the textbook and class lectures were also very helpful in my understanding of this important body system.

The histology portion is something that I still can't wrap my head around. Hopefully one day the information will just make sense, but as of now I'm totally clueless in front of the microscope. For some reason I can't tell one thing from another and it is very frustrating. The same Histology site that I used for respiratory system was great in helping me understand the alimentary canal as well.

Objective 43: Describe the anatomy and histology of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs

I could have very easily put this objective with the blog that contains objectives 44-47, but that would have made that entire blog extremely too long. This objective is very closely related to objective 44-47, and in fact the MyA&P Interactive Physiology site is a great help in understanding the anatomy of the respiratory system. This site describes each part of the respiratory system in great detail, and I was also able to interact with the slides to go even further into the anatomy of the respiratory system, such as the lungs and the bronchi. What this amazing video does not cover is the histology portion of the respiratory system. Now, I have to admit there is no way that I can say that I enjoyed the histology portion of any body system. Histology is hands down very confusing, and I still have trouble with it at this very moment. If you put me in front of a microscope I couldn't tell you what it even was, let alone its function. I wasn't able to get great  histology pictures of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi or the lungs but I was able to find a great site that did.

Objective 57: Justify the role of lacteals in transporting products of digestion

Lacteals are highly specialized lymphatic capillaries that are located in the crypts of the villi of the intestinal mucosa. But since they are located in the villi, how do they transport products of digestion? I referred to both the lymphatic and digestive chapters for my answer (page 657 and 767) and it helped me understand these important capillaries. The lacteals play a huge role in absorbing digestive fats (chyle) from the intestine and then leads it to the thoracic duct, which ultimately sends it to the left subclavian vein. Being able to review the diagram from chapter 22 page 768 gave me a better insight on the structure of the lacteal and how it plays a role in absorbing chyle. I also reviewed the histology of the lacteal, and with both these diagrams and the information from the book I was really able to have a light bulb click on for me.

Objective 56: Examine differences in metabolic and respiratory acidosis and alkalosis

Here is another objective that I figured would be so complicated to understand, but I'm very glad to say that wasn't the case at all. I referred to chapter 25 page 886-887 and it provided some very good information on these topics. The chart on page 886 (included below) was also a great help in understanding metabolic and respiratory acidosis and alkalosis, because the chart also explains what the causes and consequences are of each acid-base imbalance. Hey, a little extra information never hurts if it helps you better understand the concept, right? So this is what I gathered from the textbook about what each one was.

Respiratory acidosis: (The most common cause of acid-base imbalance)
Respiratory acidosis is characterized by falling pH and rising partial pressure of carbon dioxide. It occurs most often when a person breathes shallow or when gas exchange is hampered by diseases

Respiratory alkalosis:
Respiratory alkalosis occurs when carbon dioxide is eliminated from the body faster than it is produced, causing the blood to become more alkaline. This often occurs from stress or pain.

Metabolic acidosis: (Second most common cause of acid-base imbalance)
Metabolic acidosis occurs when their is a low blood pH and low HCO3- levels. Typical causes of this are too much alcohol (Hello hangover!) and excessive loss of HCO3-.

Metabolic alkalosis:
Metabolic alkalosis occurs when their is a rise in blood pH and a rise in HCO3- levels. Typical causes of this are vomiting of the acidic contents of the stomach and an intake of excess base (Hold off on those Tums please!).

Objective 7: Analyze factors that can affect cellular activities

To be honest, I'm not quite sure what the exact answer to this objective might be. It is such a broad objective that it could probably go in any direction. The body is an amazing, complex system! It consists of quite a number of unique systems, organs, tissues, hormones, cells and process that work together to achieve and maintain homeostasis. If even one of these systems, or even tissues for that matter, malfunctions in the slightest way our body could be thrown out of homeostasis. There are countless factors that could affect the body negatively, which could affect the body and its cellular activites. Since there is seems to be no right or wrong answer in an objective as broad as this one, I decided to list some of the factors that we've learned in our class that could throw off the bodies homeostasis. Here goes nothing!

Dehydration

Excess water in the body

Temperature

Hormonal Imbalances

Medications

Bacterial or Viral Infections

Auto-immune diseases

Hypersecretion of a hormone

Hyposecretion of a hormone

Edema

Lymphedema

High blood pressure

Organ failure

Blockage of an artery or vein

Low blood pressure

Respiratory Alkalosis/ Acidosis

Metabolic Alkalosis/ Acidosis

Carbon monoxide poisoning

Hyperventilation

Malnutrition

Stress

Cancers

Tachycardia

Bradycardia

Hormonal Imbalances

Obesity

Sexually Transmitted Diseases

Changes in pH

Urinary Retention

Changes in Osmolarity

The list of factors that can affect cellular activities of the body could go on forever. I decided to list just a few of the topics that we have covered in class that can cause the body fall out of homeostasis. I could go on for days just listing factors, but I'm sure I've hit a few key points. The body has amazing systems and process that can detect fators such as these and respond to them in their own unique way to bring the body back to homeostasis.



Objective 67: Contrast volume and electrolyte content in inter- and extracellular fluid compartments

With the help of some excellent diagrams, this objective was a breeze. Did I stress that diagrams are extremely helpful in learning a majority of these concepts? I obtained these photos and slides from the PowerPoint lecture outlines available for our class and included them. Although, I did refer to my textbook for some more information and that helped out a great deal. The first photo that I've included can be found in chapter 25 page 868 and the fourth photo can be found in chapter 25 page 869. The first photo breaks down the major fluid compartments of the body, and it is plain to see that intracellular fluid makes up the majority of it. That makes sense, cells need fluids to perform their functions. Extracellular fluid is composed of two things, interstitial fluid and plasma. ICF is 25 L of our bodies total water, while ECF is only 15 L of our bodies total water (40 L all together). The last chart is very helpful because it shows the total solute concentration that each electrolyte occupies in ICF, ECF, and blood plasma.

Objective 20: Describe the structure, functions, life cycle, production or erythrocytes and leukocytes

I'm pretty positive that I could have included this objective with another previous blood objective, but I thought this one sounded harder than it actually was (go figure, I seemed to have done that with a lot of them). The blood and cardiovascular system are the two systems that I am most familiar with (and are probably some of the more easier systems of the body), so I didn't have my head spinning half of the time trying to grasp the concepts. The textbook was my main aid in trying to figure out the structure, function, life cycle, and production of the erythrocytes and leukocytes. I found this chart in chapter 16 page 562 that summarizes all of this information in one place. I've never been so grateful for a chart in my life. The text does describe the erythrocytes and leukocytes in detail, but c'mon who doesn't love a very informative chart? The chart not only provided me with the information I was looking for, it also shows you a picture of a erythrocyte and pictures of all the leukocytes. A chart can't get any better than that!

Objective 44, 45, 46, 47: Respiratory system

Objective 44: Locate and identify the functions of each respiratory system structure
Objective 45: Characterize the neuronal network that controls respiration
Objective 46: Relate breathing to cellular respiration
Objective 47: Decide how arterial carbon dioxide concentrations affect ventilation

Wow, I'm surprised that I am able to gather that many objectives in one blog. That really shows you how similar all of these processes are and how our body works together to accomplish tasks. Our textbook's website (MyA&P) provides an excellent Interactive physiology website that gives in-deph animated tutorials. On this website, I went under the respiratory system tab and reviewed the anatomy review and control of respiration. The videos remind me of a mini animated powerpoint, but it is ten time better than that because the site allows you to interact with it on certain topics. Since i'm a visual learner and I prefer animated videos showing me the topic, I am more than thrilled that this site had what I was looking for.

The anatomy review video was amazing in showing me the location and informing me of the function of the respiratory system. There are certain points in the video where I was able to click my mouse on certain structures of the respiratory system and it would zoom in, giving me a closer view of the structural make-up. Interacting with this visual lesson was a big help, and gave me a little more insight on the respiratory system than just reading alone. The control of respiration video was beneficial in helping me understand the neuronal network that controls respiration and how carbon dioxide affects ventilation. To be honest, I didn't know that there were inspiratory neurons in the medulla. I always knew, from previous classes, that breathing was controlled near the brain but I was never quite clear how. This video also broken down the effect CO2 on ventilation at the end with a flow chart. So, it goes like this. An increase of PCO2 in the blood cause a decrease in pH, which stimulates the peripheal chemoreceptors to send nerve impulses to the respiratory center. This causes a decrease in pH in the brain, which stimulates central chemoreceptors to send nerve impulses to the respiratory center. The respiratory center then stimulates the respiratory muscles, which increase the ventilation and helps the blood get back to normal levels.

Trying to relate breathing to cellular respiration was another one of my big challenges. It seems no matter where I looked for the information, there was nothing on how the two were similar. I finally found one site that made the topic less foggy for me. So, basically breathing is related to cellular respiration because it provides the mechanism for gas exchange. Cellular respiration requires the intake of oxygen to perform. Cellular respiration breaks down energy-rich molecules to harvest ATP, and then ATP is used for basically all the work that the cells perform. While I was trying to find the answer to what cellular respiration really is, I came across this Cellular Respiration video that relates cellular respiration to examples in life. It was extremely helpful for me.

Objective 68 & 70: Chemical buffer system

Objective 68: Recognize how chemical buffers interact to protect the body against lethal changes of pH
Objective 70: Recognize how the lungs and kidneys interact to protect the body against lethal changes of pH

Wow, if only you know how long it actually took me to figure this objective out. I put it off as long as I could because I try to stay as far away from anything remotely chemistry related as possible. I finally decided to be brave and take a stab at it, and I realized that the lecture outline and textbook gave some quite handy information on the chemical buffer system. Mind you, this topic is still very confusing for me. Still, the lecture outline and book helped me a great deal in trying to sort this information out in my head. Are you ready? Here's what I learned from the textbooks information.

Our body chemical buffer is a system of one or more compounds that act to resist changes in pH when a strong acid or base is added. They do this by either binding to hydrogen whenever the pH drops or releasing hydrogen whenever the pH rises. The chemical buffer system is composed of bicarbonate, phosphate, and protein buffer systems. These buffer systems are so closely related which allows any drifts in pH to be resisted by the entire buffer system. The bicarbonate buffer system buffers both ICF and ECF, but it is the only important ECF buffer. The phosphate buffer system is a very effecient buffer in urine and in ICF. Proteins in plasma and cells are the body's most powerful source of buffers.

The kidneys and lungs play an important part in protecting the body against lethal changes of pH as well. Chemical buffers cannot remove excess acids or bases from the body, and thats where the kidneys and lungs come into play. I kind of see them as the football players on the bench waiting for their turn to get into the game. Kidneys adjust bicarbonates, eliminate fixed metabolic acids (phosphoric, uric, lactic acids, and ketones), and prevent metabolic acidosis. The lungs eliminate carbonic acid by expelling carbon dioxide. It is amazing how different systems of our body work together to maintain homeostasis.

I know I'm teaching the topic again to you it seems, but being able to write out a summary of how the chemical buffer system is important really does help me grasp the information better. I guess since i'm writing it out, it's sticks easier to my brain.

Objective 69: Asses how water excess and dehydration affect kidney function

This seemed like a very easy objective when I started this blog, but after searching for the answer I realized that I couldn't really pinpoint the exact answer I was looking for. I started off searcing the internet, but it just ended up giving me a bunch of crazy answers that had nothing to do with this objective. So much for trying to find something to reinforce my understanding. After my unsuccessful search on the internet, I referred back to the handy textbook and found just what I was looking for in Chapter 25 page 873. What was I thinking trying to go somewhere else? haha. What I learned from the urinary chapter is that the kidney is the key organ to water homeostasis. The kidneys are able to retain or eliminate water, to regulate total body water it's concentration. When the body is dehydrated, there is extracellular fluid loss and insensible water loss for whatever reason. Dehydration causes water to be lost from ECF and inadequate blood volume to maintain normal circulation. When the body has excess water, the ECF osmolality drops and ADH release is inhibited. Then less water is reabsorbed and excess water is flused from the body in urine. This excess water causes the ECF fluid to be diluted and can leads to severe metabolic disturbances.

Objective 13: Name hormones of the gonads and give their functions

Being able to name the hormones of the gonads and state their functions seemed like a pretty easy task, but I was left confused after reading the textbook. So I'll start with the common knowledge. The male and female gonads (sex organs) produce steriod hormones, like the ones produced by adrenal cortical cells. The female gonads consist of the ovaries, and the most important hormones they secrete are estrogens and progesterone. The male gonads consist of the testes (located in the scrotum), and the most important hormones that they secrete are testosterone. Sounds simple enough, right? The textbook was a great help in figuring out this information but instead of referring to the reproductive chapter, I referred to the endocrine chapter. But where does the gonadotrophins come into place? Since the gonadotrophins had the word gonad in them, I was pretty sure that they had to be part of the hormones that the gonads secrete. Wrong! The gonadotrophins actually regulate the release of the gonadal hormones. Im glad that the textbook was able to clear that up.

Functions:

Estrogens: responsible for maturation of the reproductive organs and appearance of the secondary sex characteristics of females at puberty

Progesterone: stimulate the growth of a cushion lining in the uterus where the fertilized egg can grow, promotes breast development and cyclic changes in the uterine mucosa

Testosterone: initiates the maturation of the male reproductive organs and the appearance of secondary sex characteristics and sex drive

Objective 9: Compare and contrast bond types

I didn't realize how rusty I was on bond types until I reached this objective. I believe I learned this information awhile back when I was in middle school during physical science, came across it again during chemisty, and then brushed by it in anatomy and physiology 1. So, long story short, I had to refer to chapter 2 in our textbook to become refreshed with this old topic. The textbook does a good job of simply explaining what each bond is on pages 27, 28 and 30. There are three major types of chemical bonds: ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds.

Ionic bond:

An ionic bond is a chemical bond between atoms where one or more electrons is transferred from one atom to another. The atom that gains one or more electrons is the electron adapter and it obtains a negative charge (anion). The atom that loses one or more electrons is the electron donor and it obtains a positive charge (cation).

Covalent bond:

A covalent bond occurs when two atoms share electrons and the shared electrons occupy a single orbital common to both atoms. When two atoms only share one pair of electrons, a single covalent bond is formed. When two atoms share two or three electron pairs, a double or triple covalent bond is formed.

Hydrogen bond:

A hydrogen bond is more like an attraction than a true bond. Hydrogen bonds form when a hydrogen atom, already covalently linked to one electronegative atom, is attracted by another electron- hungry atom (greedy-grabby) and a "bridge" is formed between them.


These two photos from our textbook is are examples of ionic and covalent bonds.

(ionic bond)

(covalent bond)



While I was surfing the web, I came across this Youtube video describing ionic and covalent bonds and I just had to add it to this objective. It not only is informative, but it is a very cute video that really made this information stick. I hope you enjoy it as much as I did. When I started viewing it, it made me laugh. But be careful, its quite catchy!

Objective 10: Identify classes of hormones

I really thought that this objective would be a piece of cake, but when I tried looking up the classes of hormones online I got a bunch of different answers. So I decided to refer back to the old trusted textbook and chapter 15 lecture outline to find my answer. Hormones are classified into two main classes, which are amino acid-based hormones and steriod hormones. This information is like common sense now after reviewing the slides and textbook, and it makes me laugh that I tried to make this objective harder than it really was. Both classes of hormones are chemical substances that regulate the metabolic function of other cells in the body.

Objective 60 & 61: Pancreatic juices and chemical forms

Objective 60: Describe enzymatic and bicarbonate content of pancreatic juices
Objective 61: State the chemical forms in which the major food classes are absorbed

Reading up on these two topics was a lot easier than I had originally thought. For some reason, I thought that the pancreatic juices were going to be this complicated mix of enzymes and electrolytes. I also believed that the chemical forms of the food classes were going to have a very long process to being absorbed. Well, I was in for a pleasant shock. I was able to located the information in the text book and lecture outlines, and they both did a great job in helping me understand the two. Pancreatic juice consists primarily of water, electrolytes (mainly bicarbonate), and enzymes (amylase, lipases, nucleases). The acinar cells produce the enzyme-rich component of pancreatic juice. Along with the lecture outline slides, I also referred to chapter 22 page 775 to help me understand the make up of the juice.

I copied this chart from chapter 22 lecture outline, but it can also be found on page 785. It really does a great job in outlining the chemical forms that each type of food gets broken down into. It then tells you the path of absorption that these chemicals forms travel within the body. I don't know how I would have figured out this objective without this chart. Its extremely detailed, and informative and it really made that light bulb go off for me. So what I learned is that carbohydrates are broken down into oligosaccharides and disaccharides; protein is broken down into amino acids; fats are broken down into monoglycerides, glycerol and fatty acids; and nucleic acids are broken down into pentose sugars, N-containing bases, and phosphate ions. After the major food classes are broken down into their chemical forms, it is from there that they are absorbed into different parts of the body. The last column of the chart describes in detail where they are shipped off too. Isn't the digestive system spectacular?

Objective 58: Relate structure and function of the endocrine system to digestion

This is a very broad topic, which means there could be a variaty of answers to cover this topic. I actually am still having a hard time figuring out the best way to answer this question correctly, but I'm going to give it my best shot. So, here it goes. The endocrine system is the second great control system of the body. It is made up of a serious of glands that produce a variaty of hormones. These hormones act as "chemical" messengers and help regulate a majority of the body's basic functions. There is a passage from the textbook that really helps me understand, in short, what the endocrine hormones are responsible for. In chapter 15, the passage on page 519 states "The major processes controlled and integrated by these "mighty molecules" are reproduction; growth and development; maintenance of electrolyte, water, and nutrient balance of the blood; regulation of cellular metabolism and energy balance; and mobilization of body defenses." This really helps me see how the endocrine affects the other systems more clearly. The digestion system is composed of a system of organs that helps break down food into nutrients, absorbs the nutrients into the bloodstream, and then gets rid of the wastes. So in short, the endocrine system produces important hormones (for example -gastrin, cholecystokinin, secretin) that allow the digestive function to take place. Without these hormones, our bodies could not digest the food we take in.

I know that we are not suppose to "teach" the information, but I couldn't find anything in the textbook or online that really gave me an "aha" moment. There was a small article called Enteric Endocrine System that provided a few small pieces of information that guided me, but for the most part I was on my own. Being able to write this information out on this blog really gave me a clearer understanding on how the endocrine system was related to the digestion process. The lecture in class was the only helpful thing to help me understand this information, since we discuss certain topics in depth.

Objective 30: Understand how heart valves ensure one-way blood flow during systole and diastole

Where would we be without heart valves? My best guess would be that our heart wouldn't complete systole and diastole correctly, and our heart wouldn't be able to function. Which means a very bad day! The valves in our heart ensure one-way flow of blood, and that is very important to its function! Without these valves the blood flow would back flow into other sections of the heart that they aren't suppose to be in, for example back into the atrium from the ventricles. The textbook was a great reference, and the lecture outline was a great summary of the hearts valves. When I was looking for a good diagram to back-up the textbook's information, I referred to chapter 17 pages 587-588 which provided a diagram of the AV valves and another diagram of the semilunar valves. Each diagram shows the direction of the blood flow into the heart and the blood flow through the valves. They describe how the valves are either forced open or stay closed to make sure that the blood flows one way and does not backflow. These photos were all I needed to understand this concept and I'm glad they were apart of my textbook.

Objective 74: Distinguish between diploid germ cells and haploid sex cells

Understanding mitosis and meiosis has always been an ongoing battle for me. For some reason when I first learned this concept I always got the two mixed up. I found this chart from chapter 26 page 899 that helped me in figuring out the differences between the diploid cell and the haploid cell. Well, I couldn't get a good picture of it from my camera ( I don't have a scanner) so I used the photo from the lecture outlines, but the photo and information is still the same. I promise. This photo also severed a double purpose because it helps me understand mitosis and meiosis. It never hurts to learn extra information!

So, basically the two cells go like this.

Diploid= Double. There are 46 chromosomes in each diploid cell

Haploid=Half. There are 23 chromosomes in each haploid cell

Through fertilization,  two haploid cells combine to produce a zygote. The zygote has now two sets of 23 chromosomes. So 23+23= 46. The zygote now has 46 chromosomes and is a diploid cell. I'm glad that I finally figured out the difference between the diploid and haploid cells. All I seemed to need was a little math.

This video also reinforces the information that the textbook and class lectures gave me about diploid and haploid cells. Still, having an animated diagram allows me to have a visual to remember the information by.

Objective 65: State the importance of juxtaglomerular cells in secretion of renin

There wasn't too much information on this topic, but I still relied on the textbook and class lectures to understand this objective. I really did stress myself out on this objective, but it really wasn't as hard as I made it seem. I referred to chapter 15 page 539 and chapter 25 page 845 to help me figure this information out. This is what I concluded from the information I read. There are juxtaglomerular cells are enlarged, smooth muscle cells with secretory granules containing renin. These cells become excited when blood pressure falls, and the response is to release renin in the blood. Renin initiates the release of aldosterone to help blood pressure return to normal. There wasn't too much to go on for this topic, but these passages that I did locate aided me in understanding the concept.

Objective 63 & 66: Urinary system

Objective 63: Describe the structure and function of renal corpuscles and renal tubules
Objective 66: Identify the three basic tasks performed by the nephrons and collecting ducts, and indicate where each task occurs


Anything that has to do with the nephrons is definately not my department at all. When you take an overview of the whole structure, its way more than any normal person can swallow. I never knew that such a small section of our body, microscopic small since there are about one million nephrons per kidney, could play such an important factor in our body and urine secretion. It's common sense that our bodies have to secrete waste, but I never sat and wondered how our body actually accomplished this until now. The textbooks and lectures gave a great deal of information on these topics that were not only informative, but very confusing. So I set out to find something that would better summarize this tangled mess of nephrons that our body has. I found this video on Youtube that was absolutely amazing in describing not only the structure and functions of the renal corpuscles and renal tubules, but it also gave great information about the functions of the nephrons and collecting ducts. Anything diagram that has animation showing me how the process works is helpful for me.

So basically, the nephrons functions are filtration, secretion, and reabsorption. The collecting ducts are responsible for collecting all materials that has not returned to the blood through tubular membranes. This material will exit the body as urine. Filtration occurs in the renal corpuscle. The glomerulus filters protein and cells from the blood, and then all other blood components go into the Bowman's capsule. Secretion and reabsorbtion occurs in the U-shaped tubule. The semipermeable membranes surrounding the tubule allow certain particles to reabsorbed back into the blood or from the blood into the tubule.

Objective 75 & 77: The menstural cycle and the corpus luetum

Objective 75: Explain what happens during follicular, ovulatory, and luteal phases of the menstrual cycle
Objective 77: Recognize that a blastocyst secretes human gonadotrophin, which prolongs the life of the corpus luetum

When I read this objective, I really believed that it was going to be a no brainer and I could just breeze right through it. But boy, was I wrong! There is a lot more to the menstrual cycle that I previously believed there to be. I honestly don't give my body enough credit, even though I'm pretty sure that all of us women would rather not have to deal with this very precious "gift" mother nature decides to give us. The textbook gave alot of great information regarding this topic, but there was way more information than I could comprehend. I never knew there was so much work when it came to our periods each month! The lecture outlines did a great job in summarizing the follicular, ovulatory, and luteal phases of the menstrual cycle. There is a chart in chapter 26 page 920, that really did reinforce the information, but it was kind of hard to take a clear picture of the chart so instead I borrowed them from our chapter 26 lecture outline. These charts inform you about the fluctuation of gonadotrophin levels, the ovarian cycle, the fluctuation of ovarian hormone levels, and a summary of the three phases of the uterine cycle. Wow, there is so much going on here!

Along with this helpful information from our textbook, I still was having a difficult time understanding all of the steps involved within the menstural cycle. The speaker is a little mono-tone I think, but he summarizes the information on the phases of the menstural cycle and also shows where on the charts the cycle is occuring. He actually breaks the cycle into 4 phases which was a little different then what the book said, but either way this video was helpful in reinforcing what I heard in lecture and read from the book. The video sums up the menstrual cycle perfectly when it states that it is "a complicated hormonal phenomenon". I wouldn't disagree with that logic!

I believe that objective 77 fits very nicely with the menstural cycle, because if fertilization occurs then the blastocyst implants and the corpus luetum prepares for pregnancy. But let's back up here a bit. Human Gonadotrophin is very important in prolonging the lifespan of the corpus luetum. If fertilization occurs, the implanted blastocyst secretes human gonadotrophin, which then effects the corpus luetum. The corpus luetum then secretes estrogen and progesterone until the placenta develps. If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luetum degenerates and the uterine lining sloughs off. The book doesn't do a good job of explaining this whole process to me, but this picture here gives me a little more insight.

Objective 25, 26, & 28: Physiology, Cardiac cycle, and ECG

Objective 25: Recall physiology of heart and blood vessels
Objective 26: Review the cardiac cycle as it relates to the electrical conducting system
Objective 28: Explain the meaning of an electrocardiogram and its diagnostic importance


Although the textbook gave some wonderful information about ECGs and the physiology of heart and blood vessels, it still was alot of information to wrap my head around. There were two diagrams from the textbook that helped me out with understanding the deflection waves of an ECG tracing (Chapter 17 page 595) and the summary of events during the cardiac cycle (Chapter 17 page 597). The textbook provided alot of detailed information of these two process, but all the information was making my head spin. So I started looking around on the internet and found two different videos that not only accurately summarized ECGs, cardiac cycle, and physiology but it provided animated diagrams. These animated diagrams, along with the information with the text book, allowed me to have a better understanding and I don't feel as lost. This first video is a little more simple and basically goes over the physiology of the heart and vessels and describes the meaning of an ECG.

The second video called Your Heart's Electrical Sysyem is a little more informative, and does a great job of explaining how the cardiac cycle relates to the electrical conducting system. I really wish that this video would have shown up on the site, but either way I was really glad that I came across it. An electrocardiogram is an important tool because it is a test that checks for problems with the electrical activity of the heart. Without it, we wouldn't be able to find out heart problems we may have or problems with the heart's conduction system.

Objective 29, & 33: Heart and Blood vessels

Objective 29:Compare the structure and function of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins Objective 33: Describe the role of skeletal muscle contractions and venous valves in returning blood to the heart


When I was trying to understand the structure and functions of the arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins , it almost overwhelmed me. I never realized how much there was to our bodies amazing system. My thought taking anatomy was that our body just had these set of veins and arteries that helped moved oxygen and carbon dioxide through our blood, but I never realized how much they branched off and how each one functions differently. I found a chart in Chapter 18 page 608 that summarized the structure of all of these vessels and it gave me a better understand on what they look like in our body, and I was also able to understand better on how each one functions. Another diagram that really broke down the structure of veins and arteries was found on page 606, and it helped to see the differents layers they consisted of. Along with the diagrams from our textbook, the lecture outlines were a great help in summarizing the functions on all 5 of the vessels. Arteries carry oxygenated (oxygen rich) blood away from the heart to the rest of the body. Veins do the opposite it seems, and carries deoxgenated (oxygen-poor) blood from the tissues to the heart and sends the blood through the pulmonary system to be oxygenated again. Arterioles lead to capillary beds and control the flow into the capillary beds via vasodilation and vasoconstriction. Capillaries are responsible for the exchange of gases, hormones, nutrients, wastes, etc.. Venules drain blood from capillaries into veins for the return to the heart.

When I was trying to understand what the role of skeletal muscle contractions and venous valves had to do with returning blood back to the heart, I came up with a blank. When I came across the diagram in chapter 18 page 614, it was like a light bulb came on and I felt really stupid for thinking that the concept was hard. I made it alot harder than it really was. The picture was extremely helpful and allowed me to see how the skeletal muscle effects the venous valves. Basically, the contracting skeletal muscle presses against a vein which causes the valves near the area to be forced open. Blood then goes toward the heart and the valves distal to the contracted area are closed by backflow blood. The concept was so easy, and it is also a very important adaptation of veins.